Ferdinand Kittel (1832–1903).

Ferdinand Kittel (1832–1903), Christian missionary and Kannada writer

The nascent beginnings of modern Kannada literature can be traced to the early 19th century when King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III and his court poets attempted to steer away from the ancient champu form of prose and popularise prose renderings of Sanskrit epics and plays. Kempu Narayana's Mudramanjusha ("Seal Casket", 1823) can be considered as the first modern novel before English influence on Kannada.
The impetus to modern literature also came from the onset of western style of education and the Christian missionaries who relied on the local language to propagate their gospel. The arrival of the printing press acted as a catalyst in this process. Among the several early Kannada publications, the first Kannada-English dictionary by Ferdinand Kittel (1894) is noteworthy. Another prominent Christian missionary, Hermann Mögling, was responsible for publishing Kannada classics under a series called Bibliotheca Carnataca during 1848–1853 and the first-ever Kannada newspaper called Mangalore Samachara in 1843.
In the latter half of the 19th century, progress towards original works in prose narratives initially gained momentum through translations, mostly from Sanskrit and English. With the standardisation of modern prose, the earliest original social fictions were Suryakantha by Lakshman Gadagkar (1892) and Indira Bai by Gulvadi Venkata Rao (1899). The latter work critically examines social issues, reflecting an awakening to the need for social reform.
At the turn of the century, B. M. Srikantaiah ('B. M. Sri'), regarded by some as the "Father of modern Kannada literature", gave the call for writing original works in modern Kannada, stressing on moving away from old Kannada and for drawing from contemporary English literature. This period can be considered a seed time, for a golden age to come. Srikantaiah's adaptation of lyrics from English were effective, the best known among his works being the English Geethagalu ("English Songs"), a seminal work that set the trend for the Navodaya (new birth) style of Kannada poetry. Another prominent writer, Masti Venkatesh Iyengar, is credited with laying the foundation for a generation of short-story tellers with his Kelavu Sanna Kathegalu ("A few Short Stories", 1920) and Sanna Kathegalu ("Short Stories", 1924).
The consolidation of modern drama was pioneered by T.P. Kailasam, a towering personality in the field, with his Tollu Gatti ("The Hollow and the Solid", 1918). In contrast to the earlier Indira Bai (1899), this work examines the modern education system from a Gandhian viewpoint. Kailasam followed this with Tali Kattoke Cooline ("Wages for tying the Mangalsutra"), a critic on the dowry system in marriage. His plays were mainly concerned with problems affecting middle class Brahmin families: the dowry system, religious persecution, woes in the extended family system and exploitation of women. He was among the first ones in Kannada theatre to speak about liberal values, and is thus considered by some as the one who laid the foundation of amateur Kannada theatre.

Mysore period in Karnataka

King and poet-Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1794–1868)
With the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Kingdom of Mysore rose to power in the southern Karnataka region. The Mysore court was adorned by eminent writers, composers and musicians. The kings themselves were accomplished in the fine arts and made important contributions. A unique and native form of poetic literature with dramatic representation called Yakshagana gained popularity in the 18th century.
To king Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (1673–1704), the earliest composer of the dynasty, who went by the honorific Sahitya Vidyanikasha Prastharam ("Expert in literature") is ascribed the Geetha Gopala, a well-known treatise on music. Although inspired by Jayadeva's Geetha Govinda in Sanskrit, it had an originality of its own and was written in saptapadi metre. This is the first writing to propagate the Vaishnava faith in the Kannada language.
Also dated to this period is Sarvajna (lit. "The all knowing") – a mendicant Veerashaiva poet who left a deep imprint on Kannada literature. His didactic Vachanas, numbering about 2000 penned in the tripadi metre constitute some of Kannada's most celebrated works. Though very little is known about the author himself, the first 14 of a series of poems written by him ("Reminiscences of Birth") offer some clues about his birth, parentage and his reasons for leaving home at an early age. His poems after the 14th focus on his spiritual quest as a drifter. The pithy Vachanas contain his observations on the art of living, the purpose of life and the ways of the world. He was neither patronised by royalty nor did he write for fame; his main aim was to instruct people about morality. All his poems end with "Sarvajna".
A superb story-teller and a dramatist, the Brahmin author Lakshmisa's writing is dated to the mid 16th or late 17th century. The Jaimini Bharata, the poet's Kannada version of the epic Mahabharata written in shatpadi metre, is one of the most popular poems of the late medieval period. A collection of stories, the poem contains the well-known tale of the Sita Parityaga ("Repudiation of Sita"). The author succeeds in converting a religious story into a very human tale, making it popular even in modern times.

King and writer, Jayachamaraja Wodeyar (1940–1947) with Queen Elizabeth II ----->

The period also saw advances in the field of Kannada theatre. Though evidence from inscriptions and epics dating it to the 12th century or earlier are available, modern Kannada theatre is traced to the rise of Yakshagana (a type of field play), which from available manuscripts is dated to the 16th century. It was the rule of King Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II (1673–1714) that heralded the golden age of Yakshagana compositions. A polyglot, he authored 14 Yakshaganas in various languages, although all are written in the Kannada script. He is credited with the earliest Yakshaganas that included sangeeta (music), nataka (drama) and natya (dance).
King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1794–1868) who followed in the same Wodeyar line was another prolific writer, for which he was called Abhinava Bhoja ("Modern Bhoja"). More than 40 writings are attributed to him of which a poetical romance called Saugandika Parinaya written in two versions, a sangatya and a drama, is popular. His reign signalled the shift from classical genres to modern literature which was to be complemented by the efforts of contemporary British evangelists, among others.

Basavanna

12th-century social reformer and Kannada poet, Basavanna

Basavanna, Allama Prabhu, Devara Dasimayya, Channabasava, Prabhudeva, Siddharama (1150), and Kondaguli Kesiraja are the best known among more than 300 poets (called Vachanakaras) in this genre. Prominent among the 33 women poets was Akka Mahadevi, who in addition to poetry is credited with two short writings, Mantrogopya and Yogangatrividhi. Credited to Siddharama are writings in tripadi metre and 1,379 extant poems (though he has claimed authorship of 68,000 poems).
The assassination of King Bijjala and eviction of the sharanas (devotees) from Kalyani caused a temporary set back to this order. This curtailed further growth of Vachana poetry until the 15th century when another wave of writings began under the patronage of the rulers of Vijayanagara. An offshoot of the Veerashaiva faith and an attempt to synthesise it with the advaitha (monistic) philosophy of Adi Shankara took shape. A chieftain called Nijaguna Shivayogi is considered the originator of this new philosophy called Kaivalya. A prolific writer, he composed devotional songs collectively known as the Kaivalya sahitya (or Tattva Padagalu, literally "songs of the pathway to emancipation").Shivayogi's songs were reflective, philosophical and concerned with Yoga. Among his other writings, a scientific encyclopaedia called the Vivekachintamani is considered of high value, an indication of which is its translation into Marathi language in 1604 and Sanskrit language in 1652 and again in the 18th century. The writing categorises 1,500 topics based on subject and covers a wide array such as poetics, dance and drama, musicology and erotics.
Other well-known poet saints were Muppina Sadakshari, a contemporary of Shivayogi, whose collection of songs are called the Subodhasara, Chidananda Avadhuta of the 17th century, Sarpabhushana Shivayogi of the 18th century and others. So vast is this body of literature that much of it still needs to be studied.

Veerashaiva

Mausoleum (Samadhi) of 12th-century Kannada poet Basavanna at Kudala Sangama.

In the later part of the 12th century, the Kalachuris' succeeded in overthrowing their overlords, the Western Chalukyas, and annexing the capital Kalyani. In this turbulent period, a revolt against the existing social order in the Hindu society saw the spread of a new religious faith called Veerashaivism (also called Lingayatism). Some of the followers of this faith wrote literature called Vachana Sahitya ("Vachana literature") or Sharana Sahitya ("literature of the devotees"). This literature consisted of a unique and native form of poetry in free verse called Vachana.
Basavanna (or Basava, 1160), the prime minister of southern Kalachuri King Bijjala II, is generally regarded as the inspiration for this movement. A centre of religious discussions called Anubhava Mantapa ("hall of experience") in Kalyani became the conclave where devotees gathered to discuss their mystic experiences. Here, they expressed their devotion to God Shiva in simple poems called Vachanas. These poems were spontaneous utterances of rhythmic, epigrammatical, satirical prose emphasising the worthlessness of riches, rituals and book learning, displaying a dramatic quality reminiscent of the dialogues of Plato.

Vijayanagara period in Karnataka

Poetic inscription in Kannada by Vijayanagara poet Manjaraja (1398)

The 14th century saw major upheavals in geo-politics of southern India with Muslim empires invading from the north. The Vijayanagara Empire however, stood as a bulwark against these invasions and ensured an atmosphere conducive to the fine arts. In a golden age of Kannada literature competition between Vaishnava and Veerashaiva writers was fierce and literary disputations between the two sects were common, especially in the court of King Deva Raya II. Acute rivalry led to "organised processions" in honour of the classics written by poets of the respective sects.
To this period belonged Kumara Vyasa (whose real name was Naranappa), a doyen of medieval epic poets and one the most influential Vaishnava poets of the time. He was particularly known for his sophisticated use of metaphors and had even earned the title Rupaka Samrajya Chakravarti ("Emperor of the land of Metaphors"). In 1430, he wrote the Gadugina Bharata, popularly known as Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari or Kumaravyasa Bharata in the Vyasa tradition. The work is a translation of the first ten chapters of the epic Mahabharata and emphasises the divinity and grace of the Lord Krishna, portraying all characters with the exception of Krishna as deeply human with foibles. An interesting aspect of the work is the sense of humour exhibited by the poet and his hero, Krishna. This work marks a transition of Kannada literature from old to modern and heralds a new age combining poetic perfection with religious inspiration. The remaining parvas (chapters) of the epic were translated by Timmanna Kavi (1510) in the court of King Krishnadevaraya. The poet named his work Krishnaraya Bharata after his patron king.
The first complete brahminical adaptation of the epic Ramayana was by Kumara Valmiki (1500) and is called Torave Ramayana. According to the author, the epic he wrote merely narrated God Shiva's conversation with his consort Parvati. This writing has remained popular for centuries and inspired folk theatre such as the Yakshagana, which has made use of its verses while enacting episodes from the great epic. In this version of the epic, King Ravana is depicted as one of the suitors at Sita's Swayamvara (lit. a ceremony of "choice of a husband"). His failure at winning the bride's hand results in jealousy towards Rama, the eventual bridegroom. As the story progresses, Hanuman, for all his services to Rama, is exalted to the status of "the next creator". Towards the end of the story, during the war with Rama, Ravana realised that his adversery is none other than the God Vishnu and hastened to die at his hands to achieve salvation.
Chamarasa, a Veerashaiva poet, was a rival of Kumara Vyasa in the court of Devaraya II. His eulogy of the saint Allama Prabhu, titled Prabhulinga Lile (1430), was later translated into Telugu and Tamil at the behest of his patron king. In the story, the saint was considered an incarnation of Hindu God Ganapathi while Parvati took the form of a princess of Banavasi.
Interaction between Kannada and Telugu literatures, a trend which had begun in the Hoysala period, increased. Translations of classics from Kannada to Telugu and vice versa became popular. Well known bilingual poets of this period were Bhima Kavi, Piduparti Somanatha and Nilakanthacharya. In fact, so well versed in Kannada were some Telugu poets, including Dhurjati, that they freely used many Kannada terms in their Telugu writings. The notable writer Srinatha even called his Telugu, "Kannada". This process of interaction between the two languages continued into the 19th century in the form of translations by bilingual writers.

Hoysala period in Karnataka

Hero stone (virgal) with old Kannada elegiac inscription (1220) at the Ishwara temple in Arasikere, Karnataka

In the late 12th century, the Hoysalas, a powerful hill tribe from the Malnad region in modern southern Karnataka, exploited the political uncertainty in the Deccan to gain dominance in the region south of the Krishna river in southern India. A new chronological era was adopted, imperial titles were claimed and Kannada literature flourished with such noted scholars as Janna, Harihara, Rudrabhatta, Raghavanka, Keshiraja and others.
Two renouned philosophers, Ramanujacharya and Madhvacharya who lived during this time influenced the culture of the region. The conversion of the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana from Jainism to Vaishnavism was to later prove a setback to Jain literature, which in the decades to follow faced competition from the Veerashaivas and the Haridasas as well. These events changed the literary landscape of the Kannada speaking region for ever.
Poet Harihara (or Harisvara) came from a family of karnikas (accountants), one of the earliest Veerashaiva writers who was not part of the Vachana literary tradition, and worked under the patronage of King Narasimha I. He wrote the Girijakalyana in the Kalidasa tradition, employing the old Jain champu style, with the story leading to the marriage of Shiva and Parvati in ten sections. In a deviation from the norm, Harihara avoided glorifying saintly mortals. He is credited with more than 100 poems in ragale metre, called the Nambiyanana ragale (or Shivaganada ragale, 1160) praising the saint Nambiyana and Virupaksha (a form of Hindu god Shiva). For his poetic talent, he has earned the honorific "poet of exuberance" (utsava kavi).
Harihara's nephew, Raghavanka (1165), was the first to introduce the shatpadi metre into Kannada literature in his epic Harishchandra Kavya, considered a classic despite occasionally violating strict rules of Kannada grammar. Drawing on his skill as a dramatist, Raghavanka's story of King Harishchandra vividly describes the clash of personalities between sage Vishvamitra and sage Vashisht and between Harishchandra and Vishvamitra. It is believed that this interpretation of the story is unique to Kannada literature. The writing is an original both in tradition and inspiration. In addition to Hoysala patronage, Raghavanka was honoured by Kakatiya king Prataparudra I.
Rudrabhatta, a Smartha Brahmin (believer of monistic philosophy), was the earliest well-known Brahminical writer, under the patronage of Chandramouli, a minister of King Veera Ballala II. Based on the earlier work of Vishnu Purana, he wrote Jagannatha Vijaya (1180) in the champu style, relating the life of Lord Krishna leading up to his fight with the demon Banasura.
In 1209, the Jain scholar and army commander Janna wrote Yashodhara Charite, a unique set of stories dealing with perversion. In one of the stories, a king intended to perform a ritual sacrifice of two young boys to Mariamma, a local deity. After hearing the boys' tale, the king is moved to release them and renounce the practice of human sacrifice. In honour of this work, Janna received the title Kavichakravarthi ("Emperor among poets") from King Veera Ballala II. His other classic, Anathanatha Purana (1230), deals with the life of the 14th Tirthankar Ananthanatha.

Content and genre

Inscribed handwriting of 10th-century poet Ranna reads Kavi Ratna (gem among poets) in Shravanabelagola
In the medieval period, between the 9th and 13th centuries, writers were predominantly of the Jain and Veerashaiva faith. Jains were the earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature, which they dominated until the 12th century, although a few works by Veerashaivas from that period are available. Jain authors wrote about Jain Tirthankars and other personages important to the Jain religion. The Veerashaiva writers accounted for devotees of the Hindu God Shiva, his 25 forms, and the expositions of Shaivism. Veerashaiva poets belonging to the Vachana tradition advanced the philosophy of Basavanna from the 12th century.
The period between the 13th and 15th centuries saw a decline in Jain writings and an increase in the writings of the Veerashaiva and contributions from some Vaishnava writers. Thereafter, Kannada literature has been dominated by Veerashaiva and Vaishnava writers. Vaishnava writers treated of the Hindu epics, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata, as well as the Vedanta and other subjects from the Hindu puranic traditions. From the 15th century, Haridasa poets heralded the age of devotional songs, which they propagated using music as the medium. Writings on secular subjects had remained popular throughout this period.
An important change during the Bhakti (devotion) period starting from the 12th century was the casting aside of the concept of court literature and the rise in popularity of shorter genres such as the vachana and kirthane, traditions that were more acceptable to the common man. During this period, writing classics eulogising kings, commanders and spiritual heroes was on the wane with a proportional increase in the use of local genres. Kannada literature moved closer to the spoken and sung folk traditions, with singability being its hallmark, although some poets continued to use the ancient champu form of writing (such as Shadaksharadeva of 17th century). These poets however are generally not considered trailblazers in a period of increasing vernacularization.
The most popular Sanskritic metre used to write Kannada literature from the 9th century onwards was the champu (poems in verse of various metres interspersed with paragraphs of prose, also known as champu-kavya), although it steadily fell into disuse from the 12th century. Other Sanskritic metres that were employed were the saptapadi (seven line verse), the ashtaka (eight line verse) and the shataka (hundred-line verse). There have been numerous translations of Sanskrit writings into Kannada and to a lesser extent, the other way round. The medieval period saw the development of literary metres indigenous to the Kannada language. These included the tripadi (three-line verse, in use from 7th century), one of the oldest native metres; the shatpadi (six-line verse, in use from 1165), of which six types exist; the ragale (lyrical narrative compositions, in use from 1160); the sangatya (compositions meant to be sung with a musical instrument, in use from 1232) and the akkara which came to be adopted in some Telugu writings. Such interactions with Tamil literature are however few and far apart.
Though religious literature was prominent, various literary genres such as romance, fiction, erotica, satire, folk songs, fables and parables, musical treatises and musical compositions were popular. A wealth of literature dealing in subjects such as mathematics, sciences such as astronomy, meteorology, veterinary science and medicine, astrology, grammar, logic, philosophy, poetry, prosody, drama, rhetoric, chronicles, biography, history, and cuisine, as well as dictionaries and encyclopedias are available.
Kannada literature of this period was mainly written on palm leaves. However, more than 30,000 Kannada inscriptions known as shilashasana (stone inscriptions) and tamrashasana (copper plate inscriptions) have been found in modern Karnataka and are considered important to the study of its literary developments. The Jura (Jabalpur) inscription of King Krishna III (964) is regarded as an epigraphical landmark of classical Kannada composition, containing poetic diction in kanda (a group of stanzas or chapters) metre. Elegiac poetry on hundreds of veeragallu and maastigallu (hero stones) written by unknown poets in the kanda and the vritta (commentary) metre mourn the death of heroes who sacrificed their lives and the bravery of women who performed sati.
The process of evolution from old Kannada literature to one that satisfied modern sensibilities gained momentum in the early 19th century. Kannada writers were initially influenced by modern literatures in other languages, especially English.[ Modern English education and liberal democratic values were mainly responsible for this change. Subjected to criticism by Christian missionaries, writers were quick to see weaknesses in the ancient Hindu society. This resulted in a longing for social change, while the need to cling to all that was good in the past tradition was very evident. Modernisation of Kannada prose resulted in new genres such as the short story, the novel, the literary criticism, the essay and the dramatic literature.